What Are the Environmental Issues Associated With Transportation

How does transportation contribute to air pollution and climate change?

Transportation is a major contributor to air pollution and climate change globally. The burning of fossil fuels like gasoline and diesel in vehicles releases harmful pollutants and greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

Air pollutants from transportation

The main air pollutants emitted by transportation include:

• Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
• Particulate matter (PM)
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
• Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

These pollutants have significant negative impacts on human health and the environment. For example, particulate matter can penetrate deep into the lungs and cause respiratory issues. Ground-level ozone, formed when NOx and VOCs react in sunlight, irritates the respiratory system and damages vegetation.

Greenhouse gas emissions

Transportation is also a leading source of greenhouse gas emissions that drive climate change. The primary greenhouse gas emitted is carbon dioxide (CO2) from the combustion of fossil fuels. Other greenhouse gases from transportation include methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O).

In the United States, transportation accounts for about 29% of total greenhouse gas emissions, making it the largest contributor. Globally, transportation is responsible for approximately 14% of greenhouse gas emissions.

The table below shows the breakdown of U.S. transportation CO2 emissions by mode in 2019:

Transportation Mode	CO2 Emissions (million metric tons)	Percent of Total
Light-duty vehicles	1,068	58%
Medium/heavy trucks	444	24%
Aircraft	193	10%
Other	148	8%

Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Climate change impacts

The greenhouse gas emissions from transportation contribute to global warming and associated climate change impacts like:

• Rising global temperatures
• More frequent and intense heat waves
• Changes in precipitation patterns
• More severe droughts and storms
• Sea level rise
• Ocean acidification

These climate impacts have far-reaching consequences for ecosystems, agriculture, human health, and infrastructure. For example, rising sea levels threaten coastal communities and habitats, while changing precipitation patterns affect water availability for people and crops.

Factors influencing emissions

Several factors influence the level of emissions from transportation:

Vehicle fuel efficiency: More fuel-efficient vehicles produce fewer emissions per mile traveled. Advances in engine technology and aerodynamics have improved efficiency over time.

Fuel type: Different fuels have varying emissions profiles. For example, natural gas produces less CO2 than gasoline or diesel when burned, while electric vehicles produce zero direct emissions (though there are upstream emissions from electricity generation).

Vehicle miles traveled: The total distance driven affects overall emissions. Factors like urban sprawl and lack of public transit options can increase vehicle miles traveled.

Congestion: Traffic congestion leads to more idling and stop-and-go driving, which increases emissions per mile.

Vehicle age: Older vehicles tend to have higher emissions as pollution control equipment degrades over time.

Addressing transportation’s contribution to air pollution and climate change requires a multi-faceted approach involving cleaner vehicles, alternative fuels, improved urban planning, and shifts to lower-emission modes of transport. As awareness of these environmental impacts grows, policymakers and the transportation industry are working to develop and implement solutions to reduce emissions while maintaining mobility.

What are the impacts of transportation on water quality and marine ecosystems?

Transportation systems have significant impacts on water quality and marine ecosystems through various direct and indirect pathways. These impacts affect both freshwater and marine environments, potentially harming aquatic life and human health.

Runoff pollution

One of the primary ways transportation affects water quality is through runoff pollution. As rainwater flows over roads, parking lots, and other impervious surfaces, it picks up pollutants and carries them into nearby water bodies. Common pollutants in transportation-related runoff include:

Oil and grease: Leaked from vehicles onto road surfaces.

Heavy metals: Such as copper, zinc, and lead from tire and brake wear.

Sediment: Eroded from unpaved roads or construction sites.

De-icing salts: Used on roads in winter, which can increase salinity in freshwater ecosystems.

Nutrients: From fertilizers used in roadside vegetation management.

This runoff can lead to water quality degradation, harming aquatic life and potentially contaminating drinking water sources. For example, high levels of sediment can smother fish spawning grounds, while excess nutrients can cause algal blooms that deplete oxygen in the water.

Oil spills and leaks

Transportation of oil and other hazardous materials by ships, pipelines, and trucks poses a risk of spills and leaks. Major oil spills from tanker accidents can have devastating effects on marine ecosystems, coating shorelines and wildlife with oil. Even small, chronic leaks from vehicles and boats can accumulate over time, degrading water quality and harming aquatic life.

Invasive species

Ships’ ballast water can transport invasive aquatic species between different water bodies. When ballast water is discharged, these non-native species can be introduced to new environments, potentially disrupting local ecosystems. For example, the zebra mussel, introduced to the Great Lakes via ballast water, has caused significant ecological and economic damage.

Physical habitat alteration

Transportation infrastructure can physically alter aquatic habitats:

Bridges and culverts: Can modify stream flow and sediment transport, affecting aquatic habitats.

Port development: Dredging and construction of port facilities can destroy coastal habitats and alter water circulation patterns.

Channelization: Straightening and deepening of waterways for navigation can eliminate natural habitat features.

Impacts on specific marine ecosystems

Transportation activities affect various marine ecosystems in different ways:

Coral reefs: Ship groundings, anchor damage, and pollution from ports and marinas can harm fragile coral reef ecosystems.

Coastal wetlands: Road construction and port development can lead to wetland loss, reducing important habitat and natural water filtration.

Estuaries: Runoff pollution and physical alterations can degrade these productive ecosystems that serve as nurseries for many marine species.

Open ocean: Noise pollution from ships can disrupt marine mammal communication and navigation.

The table below summarizes some key impacts of transportation on water quality and marine ecosystems:

Impact	Cause	Effect
Runoff pollution	Stormwater flowing over roads and parking lots	Water quality degradation, harm to aquatic life
Oil spills	Accidents involving oil tankers or pipelines	Contamination of water and shorelines, wildlife mortality
Invasive species	Ballast water discharge from ships	Disruption of native ecosystems
Habitat alteration	Construction of bridges, ports, and channels	Loss or modification of aquatic habitats
Noise pollution	Ship engines and propellers	Disruption of marine mammal behavior

Mitigation strategies

To address these impacts, various mitigation strategies can be employed:

Improved stormwater management: Implementation of green infrastructure like bioswales and permeable pavement to filter runoff.

Stricter regulations: Enforcement of ballast water treatment requirements and oil spill prevention measures.

Habitat restoration: Projects to restore degraded aquatic habitats affected by transportation infrastructure.

Alternative de-icing methods: Use of sand or environmentally-friendly de-icers to reduce salt runoff.

Noise reduction technologies: Development of quieter ship propulsion systems to minimize underwater noise.

By implementing these and other mitigation measures, the transportation sector can work to reduce its impact on water quality and marine ecosystems. This is crucial for preserving biodiversity, maintaining healthy aquatic environments, and ensuring the sustainability of water resources for future generations.

How does noise pollution from transportation affect human health and wildlife?

Noise pollution from transportation is a pervasive environmental issue that affects both human health and wildlife. As transportation networks expand and traffic volumes increase, the impacts of noise pollution become more widespread and severe.

Sources of transportation noise

The main sources of transportation noise include:

Road traffic: Engine noise, tire-road contact, and aerodynamic noise from vehicles.

Rail transport: Train engines, wheel-rail contact, and warning signals.

Air traffic: Aircraft engines during takeoff, landing, and flight.

Maritime transport: Ship engines and horns.

The intensity and characteristics of the noise vary depending on factors such as vehicle type, speed, and traffic volume.

Effects on human health

Prolonged exposure to transportation noise can have significant negative impacts on human health:

Hearing impairment: Continuous exposure to high noise levels can lead to hearing loss over time.

Sleep disturbance: Nighttime noise from traffic can disrupt sleep patterns, leading to fatigue and decreased cognitive performance.

Cardiovascular issues: Chronic noise exposure is associated with increased risk of hypertension and heart disease.

Stress and mental health: Noise can cause irritation, anxiety, and contribute to the development of mental health disorders.

Cognitive impairment: Children exposed to high levels of traffic noise may experience reduced cognitive development and academic performance.

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that at least one million healthy life years are lost every year in Western Europe due to environmental noise, with road traffic being the dominant source.

Impacts on wildlife

Transportation noise also has significant effects on wildlife:

Communication interference: Many animals rely on acoustic signals for communication. Noise can mask these signals, affecting mating, territorial defense, and predator-prey interactions.

Behavioral changes: Animals may alter their behavior in response to noise, such as changing feeding patterns or avoiding noisy areas altogether.

Physiological stress: Chronic noise exposure can lead to increased stress hormone levels in animals, potentially affecting their health and reproductive success.

Habitat degradation: Noise pollution can reduce the quality of habitats, making them less suitable for certain species.

Specific examples of wildlife impacts

Birds: Studies have shown that birds in noisy areas may alter their song frequencies or timing to avoid overlap with traffic noise. This can affect their ability to attract mates or defend territories.

Marine mammals: Underwater noise from ships can interfere with the echolocation and communication of whales and dolphins, potentially leading to behavioral changes and even strandings.

Amphibians: Frogs and toads may have difficulty hearing each other’s mating calls near noisy roads, potentially affecting reproduction rates.

The table below summarizes some key effects of transportation noise on humans and wildlife:

Impact Category	Humans	Wildlife
Physiological	Hearing loss, cardiovascular issues	Increased stress hormone levels
Behavioral	Sleep disturbance, cognitive impairment	Changes in feeding, mating, and movement patterns
Communication	Speech interference	Masking of mating calls and warning signals
Habitat use	Reduced property values in noisy areas	Avoidance of noisy habitats

Noise mitigation strategies

To address the impacts of transportation noise, various mitigation strategies can be employed:

Source reduction: Developing quieter vehicles and aircraft engines, using low-noise road surfaces.

Noise barriers: Constructing walls or earthen berms along roads and railways to block noise propagation.

Land use planning: Implementing buffer zones between noisy transportation corridors and sensitive areas like residential neighborhoods or wildlife habitats.

Operational measures: Implementing speed limits, flight path adjustments, or time restrictions on noisy activities.

Building insulation: Improving sound insulation in buildings near noisy transportation routes.

Quiet zones: Designating areas where additional noise reduction measures are implemented, such as railroad quiet zones where train horns are restricted.

Conclusion

Noise pollution from transportation is a significant environmental issue with far-reaching impacts on both human health and wildlife. As our understanding of these impacts grows, there is an increasing need for comprehensive noise management strategies that address the problem at multiple levels, from vehicle design to urban planning. By implementing effective noise mitigation measures, we can work towards creating healthier and more livable environments for both humans and wildlife in our increasingly mobile world.

In what ways does transportation infrastructure lead to habitat destruction?

Transportation infrastructure, while essential for human mobility and economic development, often comes at a significant cost to natural habitats. The construction and expansion of roads, railways, airports, and ports can lead to widespread habitat destruction, fragmentation, and degradation, with far-reaching consequences for biodiversity and ecosystem function.

Direct habitat loss

The most immediate impact of transportation infrastructure on habitats is direct loss:

Land clearing: Construction of transportation corridors often requires clearing large swaths of land, destroying existing habitats.

Wetland filling: Many transportation projects involve filling wetlands to create stable ground for roads or runways, eliminating these crucial ecosystems.

Coastal development: Port expansion and coastal highway construction can destroy sensitive coastal habitats like mangroves and salt marshes.

Mountain cuts: Building roads through mountainous terrain often involves cutting into hillsides, destroying slope habitats.

The scale of habitat loss can be substantial. For example, the U.S. Department of Transportation estimates that the construction of one mile of four-lane highway can directly impact up to 48 acres of land.

Habitat fragmentation

Beyond direct loss, transportation infrastructure fragments remaining habitats:

Barrier effects: Roads and railways create physical barriers that can divide populations of wildlife, reducing genetic exchange and limiting access to resources.

Edge effects: The creation of habitat edges along transportation corridors can alter microclimates and expose interior species to predators and invasive species.

Isolation: Small habitat patches created by fragmentation may be too small to support viable populations of certain species.

Habitat fragmentation can have particularly severe impacts on species with large home ranges or those that require specific migration routes. For example, the construction of highways through forest habitats has been shown to significantly reduce movement and increase mortality rates for large mammals like bears and wolves.

Habitat degradation

Transportation infrastructure can also degrade the quality of surrounding habitats:

Pollution: Runoff from roads and airports can introduce pollutants into nearby ecosystems, affecting water quality and soil composition.

Noise and light pollution: Traffic noise and artificial lighting can disrupt animal behavior and alter ecosystem dynamics.

Altered hydrology: Road construction can change local drainage patterns, affecting water availability in surrounding habitats.

Invasive species spread: Transportation corridors can serve as conduits for the spread of invasive plant and animal species.

Specific ecosystem impacts

The impacts of transportation infrastructure on habitats vary depending on the ecosystem type:

Forests: Road construction in forests can lead to increased logging access, exacerbating deforestation. The creation of forest edges along roads can alter microclimate conditions and species composition.

Wetlands: Highway construction often involves draining or filling wetlands, eliminating these biodiversity hotspots and reducing natural flood control.

Grasslands: Roads through grassland ecosystems can facilitate the spread of invasive plant species and increase fire frequency.

Coastal areas: Port development and coastal highways can destroy mangroves, salt marshes, and other coastal habitats crucial for shoreline protection and marine life.

Mountain ecosystems: Road cuts in mountainous areas can destabilize slopes, leading to increased erosion and landslides that further damage habitats.

The table below summarizes some key impacts of transportation infrastructure on different habitat types:

Habitat Type	Primary Infrastructure	Major Impacts
Forests	Roads, railways	Fragmentation, edge effects, increased access for logging
Wetlands	Highways, airports	Direct loss through filling, altered hydrology
Grasslands	Roads, railways	Invasive species spread, altered fire regimes
Coastal areas	Ports, coastal highways	Destruction of mangroves and salt marshes, altered sediment dynamics
Mountains	Mountain roads	Slope destabilization, erosion, fragmentation of alpine habitats

Mitigation strategies

To reduce the habitat destruction caused by transportation infrastructure, various mitigation strategies can be employed:

Avoidance: Careful route planning to avoid sensitive habitats and minimize fragmentation.

Wildlife crossings: Construction of overpasses or underpasses to maintain habitat connectivity across transportation corridors.

Habitat restoration: Implementing projects to restore or create habitats to compensate for those lost to infrastructure development.

Improved drainage systems: Designing road drainage to minimize impacts on local hydrology and reduce pollutant runoff.

Noise and light reduction: Implementing measures to reduce noise and light pollution along transportation corridors.

Invasive species management: Developing and implementing plans to prevent and control the spread of invasive species along transportation routes.

Conclusion

The destruction and degradation of habitats due to transportation infrastructure represent a significant environmental challenge. As global transportation networks continue to expand, it is crucial to balance the need for mobility and economic development with the preservation of natural habitats and biodiversity. By implementing comprehensive mitigation strategies and adopting more sustainable approaches to infrastructure development, we can work towards minimizing the ecological footprint of our transportation systems and preserving critical habitats for future generations.

How does the transportation sector consume natural resources?

The transportation sector is a significant consumer of natural resources, both in the production of vehicles and infrastructure and in their ongoing operation. This consumption has far-reaching environmental implications, from resource depletion to pollution and climate change.

**## How does the transportation sector consume natural resources?

The transportation sector is a significant consumer of natural resources, both in the production of vehicles and infrastructure and in their ongoing operation. This consumption has far-reaching environmental implications, from resource depletion to pollution and climate change.

Energy consumption

Transportation is heavily reliant on energy resources, primarily fossil fuels, which include:

• Petroleum: The dominant fuel source for road vehicles, aviation, and maritime transport.
• Natural gas: Used in some heavy-duty vehicles and increasingly in public transit systems.
• Electricity: Gaining traction through electric vehicles (EVs) but often generated from fossil fuels.

In 2019, transportation accounted for approximately 29% of total energy consumption in the United States, making it one of the largest energy-consuming sectors. The reliance on fossil fuels not only depletes finite resources but also contributes to greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution.

Material consumption

The production of vehicles and transportation infrastructure requires substantial amounts of raw materials:

• Metals: Steel and aluminum are essential for vehicle manufacturing and infrastructure construction.
• Asphalt and concrete: Used extensively in road construction.
• Plastics: Found in vehicle interiors, exteriors, and components.

The extraction and processing of these materials can lead to habitat destruction, water pollution, and increased carbon emissions. For instance, mining activities for metals can result in soil erosion and contamination of local water sources.

The table below outlines the primary materials consumed by the transportation sector:

Material Type	Primary Use	Environmental Impact
Steel	Vehicle manufacturing, infrastructure	Habitat destruction from mining, CO2 emissions from production
Aluminum	Lightweight vehicles	Energy-intensive extraction process
Asphalt	Road construction	Oil consumption during production
Concrete	Infrastructure	High carbon footprint from cement production
Plastics	Vehicle components	Pollution from plastic production

Water consumption

The transportation sector also consumes significant amounts of water:

• Vehicle manufacturing: Water is used in various stages of vehicle production, including cooling processes and cleaning.
• Infrastructure development: Construction activities require water for mixing concrete and dust suppression.

Water scarcity is a growing concern in many regions, and the demand from the transportation sector can exacerbate these issues. For example, the construction of new highways or rail lines can strain local water resources, especially in arid areas.

Land use

Transportation infrastructure consumes vast amounts of land:

• Roads and highways: Require extensive land for construction, leading to habitat loss and fragmentation.
• Airports: Need large areas for runways, terminals, and support facilities.
• Railroads: Occupy land that could otherwise support natural habitats or agricultural activities.

This land consumption contributes to urban sprawl and reduces available space for wildlife habitats. The conversion of land for transportation use can lead to increased runoff, reduced biodiversity, and altered local ecosystems.

Mitigation strategies

To address the consumption of natural resources by the transportation sector, several strategies can be employed:

• Sustainable materials: Promote the use of recycled materials in vehicle manufacturing and infrastructure development.
• Energy efficiency: Enhance fuel efficiency standards for vehicles to reduce fossil fuel consumption.
• Public transit investment: Expand public transit systems to decrease reliance on personal vehicles.
• Alternative fuels: Encourage the use of renewable energy sources for transportation, such as biofuels or electricity from renewable sources.
• Land-use planning: Implement smart growth strategies to minimize land consumption while maximizing transportation efficiency.

By adopting these strategies, the transportation sector can work towards reducing its consumption of natural resources while minimizing its environmental impact. Sustainable practices in vehicle design, fuel use, and infrastructure planning are essential for creating a more environmentally responsible transportation system.

What waste issues are associated with transportation systems?

The transportation sector generates various types of waste that pose significant environmental challenges. From vehicle manufacturing to end-of-life disposal, each stage contributes to waste production that can harm ecosystems and human health.

Vehicle manufacturing waste

The production of vehicles generates substantial waste:

• Scrap metal: During manufacturing processes, excess metal is often discarded as scrap.
• Paint waste: Solvent-based paints used in vehicle finishing can produce hazardous waste if not properly managed.
• Plastic waste: Manufacturing processes create plastic offcuts that may end up in landfills.

Efforts to recycle these materials are essential to minimize waste generation. For instance, recycling steel from old vehicles can significantly reduce the need for new metal extraction.

End-of-life vehicle waste

When vehicles reach the end of their useful life, they contribute to considerable waste:

• Automotive batteries: Lead-acid batteries contain hazardous materials that require proper recycling.
• Tires: Millions of tires are discarded each year; improper disposal can lead to environmental contamination.
• Fluids: Motor oil, coolant, and other fluids must be disposed of correctly to prevent soil and water pollution.

Proper recycling programs are crucial for managing end-of-life vehicle waste. For example, tire recycling can convert old tires into useful products like rubber mulch or asphalt additives.

The table below summarizes key waste types associated with vehicles at their end-of-life stage:

Waste Type	Description	Environmental Concern
Automotive batteries	Lead-acid batteries used in vehicles	Hazardous material contamination
Tires	Discarded tires after vehicle use	Fire hazard; breeding ground for pests
Fluids	Motor oil, coolant, brake fluid	Soil and water pollution if improperly disposed

Infrastructure-related waste

Transportation infrastructure also generates significant waste during construction and maintenance:

• Construction debris: Roads and bridges generate concrete, asphalt, and metal waste during demolition or renovation.
• Maintenance waste: Routine maintenance activities produce hazardous wastes like paints and solvents used for repairs.

Improper disposal of this waste can lead to soil contamination and increased landfill usage. Recycling concrete from demolished structures can reduce landfill pressure while providing materials for new construction projects.

Air pollution as a form of waste

Transportation systems also contribute to air pollution as a byproduct of fuel combustion. Emissions from vehicles contain harmful pollutants like nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter (PM), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These pollutants not only degrade air quality but also contribute to climate change through greenhouse gas emissions.

Mitigation strategies must focus on reducing emissions through cleaner technologies such as electric vehicles (EVs) or alternative fuels like hydrogen or biofuels.

How does transportation affect environmental justice?

Environmental justice addresses the disproportionate impact of environmental hazards on marginalized communities. The transportation sector plays a critical role in this issue through its effects on air quality, noise pollution, access to mobility options, and overall community health.

Disproportionate exposure to pollution

Low-income communities often live near busy roads or industrial areas with high levels of traffic congestion. This proximity exposes residents to elevated levels of air pollutants such as:

• Particulate matter (PM)
• Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

Research indicates that marginalized communities experience higher rates of respiratory illnesses due to this exposure. For example, studies have found that children living near major highways have increased rates of asthma compared to those living farther away.

Additionally, noise pollution from transportation sources exacerbates health issues in these communities. Chronic exposure to high noise levels can lead to stress-related health problems such as hypertension or sleep disturbances.

Limited access to transportation options

Environmental justice also encompasses equitable access to transportation options. Many low-income neighborhoods lack adequate public transit services or safe walking/biking routes. This limited access creates barriers to employment opportunities, education, healthcare services, and social engagement.

In contrast, wealthier neighborhoods often enjoy better public transit connections and infrastructure investments. This disparity perpetuates cycles of poverty by restricting mobility options for marginalized populations.

The table below highlights key issues related to environmental justice in transportation:

Issue Category	Impact on Marginalized Communities
Air quality	Higher exposure to pollutants leading to health issues
Noise pollution	Increased stress levels; sleep disturbances
Transportation access	Limited mobility options affecting job opportunities
Infrastructure investment	Disparities between wealthy vs. low-income neighborhoods

What are effective mitigation strategies for reducing transportation’s environmental impact?

Addressing the environmental impacts associated with transportation requires a multi-faceted approach involving technological innovation, policy changes, community engagement, and sustainable practices. Here are some effective mitigation strategies:

Technological innovations

Investing in cleaner technologies is essential for reducing emissions:

• Electric vehicles (EVs): Transitioning from traditional internal combustion engine vehicles to EVs can drastically reduce greenhouse gas emissions when paired with renewable energy sources.

• Alternative fuels: Promoting biofuels or hydrogen fuel cells can provide cleaner alternatives that minimize reliance on fossil fuels.

Policy changes

Governments play a crucial role in shaping transportation practices through regulations:

• Emissions standards: Implementing stricter emissions standards for vehicles helps drive innovation toward cleaner technologies.

• Fuel economy standards: Establishing higher fuel economy targets encourages manufacturers to develop more efficient vehicles.

Sustainable urban planning

Integrating sustainable practices into urban planning is vital:

• Public transit investment: Expanding public transit options reduces reliance on personal vehicles while decreasing congestion and emissions.

• Active transport infrastructure: Developing safe walking and biking paths promotes active transport modes that are environmentally friendly.

Community engagement

Engaging communities fosters awareness around sustainable practices:

• Education campaigns: Informing residents about alternative transport options encourages behavior change toward more sustainable choices.

• Community-led initiatives: Supporting local initiatives focused on sustainable transport solutions empowers communities while addressing their specific needs.

Waste management improvements

Enhancing waste management practices within the transportation sector minimizes environmental impact:

• Recycling programs: Establishing robust recycling initiatives for end-of-life vehicles helps reclaim valuable materials while reducing landfill pressure.

• Hazardous waste management plans: Implementing comprehensive plans ensures proper disposal methods are followed for hazardous materials generated during vehicle maintenance or infrastructure projects.

By implementing these effective mitigation strategies across various levels—technological advancements at the industry level; policy changes at governmental levels; community engagement initiatives; sustainable urban planning efforts; improved waste management practices—the transportation sector can significantly reduce its environmental impact while promoting equitable access to mobility solutions for all communities.

Through collaboration among stakeholders—including governments; private industry; non-profit organizations; community groups—progress toward a more sustainable future becomes achievable—ultimately benefiting both people’s health as well as our planet’s well-being.